{
  "schemaVersion": 1,
  "generatedAt": "2026-10-21T16:23:20.555603+00:00",
  "license": "CC0-1.0",
  "slug": "qcow2-external-data-observations",
  "title": "QCOW2 external-data observations",
  "summary": "Sixty offline observations separate external payload identity, working-directory resolution, zero-write semantics and successful metadata inspection.",
  "published": "2026-10-21",
  "updated": "2026-10-21",
  "licenseUrl": "https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/",
  "humanPage": "https://hesela.com/analyses/qcow2-backing-chain-verification/#external-data",
  "sourceUrl": "https://hesela.com/analyses/qcow2-backing-chain-verification/#external-data",
  "downloadPath": "/research/qcow2-external/observations.csv",
  "rawPath": "/research/qcow2-external/results.json",
  "codePath": "/research/qcow2-external/observe.py",
  "generatorPath": "/research/qcow2-external/build.py",
  "citations": [
    {
      "id": "qcow2-format",
      "title": "QEMU v8.2.2: external-data feature bits and standard cluster descriptors",
      "url": "https://github.com/qemu/qemu/blob/v8.2.2/docs/interop/qcow2.txt",
      "accessed": "2026-10-21"
    },
    {
      "id": "qcow2-external-test",
      "title": "QEMU v8.2.2 iotest 244: external data, zero writes and raw-mode controls",
      "url": "https://github.com/qemu/qemu/blob/v8.2.2/tests/qemu-iotests/244",
      "accessed": "2026-10-21"
    },
    {
      "id": "qcow2-external-open",
      "title": "QEMU v8.2.2: external data-file opening and creation implementation",
      "url": "https://github.com/qemu/qemu/blob/v8.2.2/block/qcow2.c",
      "accessed": "2026-10-21"
    },
    {
      "id": "qemu-refcounts",
      "title": "QEMU v8.2.2: external-data treatment in reference-count checks",
      "url": "https://github.com/qemu/qemu/blob/v8.2.2/block/qcow2-refcount.c",
      "accessed": "2026-10-21"
    },
    {
      "id": "qemu-info-implementation",
      "title": "QEMU v8.2.2: image information collection and NO_IO opening",
      "url": "https://github.com/qemu/qemu/blob/v8.2.2/qemu-img.c",
      "accessed": "2026-10-21"
    }
  ],
  "columns": [
    {
      "name": "case",
      "type": "string",
      "description": "Controlled manipulation; every case begins from a fresh private fixture."
    },
    {
      "name": "rawMode",
      "type": "boolean",
      "description": "data_file_raw creation flag, not a guarantee after out-of-band modification."
    },
    {
      "name": "repetition",
      "type": "integer",
      "description": "Repeat on one host, not an independent reliability sample."
    },
    {
      "name": "checkExit",
      "type": "integer",
      "description": "qemu-img check exit: 0 consistent; 1 opening failed in these fixtures."
    },
    {
      "name": "infoExit",
      "type": "integer",
      "description": "qemu-img info --backing-chain exit; zero does not prove payload readability."
    },
    {
      "name": "compareExit",
      "type": "integer",
      "description": "qemu-img compare exit: 0 equal; 1 completed difference; 2 opening failed."
    },
    {
      "name": "exportExit",
      "type": "integer",
      "description": "Raw export exit: 0 completed; 1 opening failed in these fixtures."
    },
    {
      "name": "metadataUnchanged",
      "type": "boolean",
      "description": "Metadata file size and SHA-256 unchanged from its pre-manipulation snapshot."
    },
    {
      "name": "changedGuestBytes",
      "type": "integer|null",
      "description": "Differing positions across all 262144 guest bytes; null when unreadable."
    },
    {
      "name": "initialDirectRawChangedBytes",
      "type": "integer",
      "description": "Difference count when reading the intact external file directly, before manipulation."
    }
  ],
  "method": "Ten isolated cases x two data_file_raw modes x three repetitions on one host. A four-cluster, 256 KiB disk is written with known bytes and one cluster is zeroed. Every successful raw export is compared at every byte position with an independent oracle.",
  "limits": [
    "Synthetic offline files, not a VM restore, crash experiment, field failure sample or benchmark.",
    "One Ubuntu QEMU 8.2.2 package and regular-file backend; no assurance about other versions or runtimes.",
    "No backing file, guest filesystem, compression, encryption, internal snapshot, dirty bitmap or live writer.",
    "Raw-mode agreement is checked before manipulation; out-of-band payload edits can break that agreement.",
    "File hashes identify bytes, not authenticity, intended recovery state or application consistency."
  ],
  "evidenceType": "native-tool-observations-on-synthetic-inputs",
  "environment": {
    "python": "3.12.3",
    "kernel": "6.8.0-146-generic",
    "qemuImg": {
      "version": "qemu-img version 8.2.2 (Debian 1:8.2.2+ds-0ubuntu1.18)",
      "binarySha256": "634320b91165669917123e8e79cce1c4d00cee0a4aa4d662d7c0a8186479b3fb"
    },
    "qemuIo": {
      "version": "qemu-io version 8.2.2 (Debian 1:8.2.2+ds-0ubuntu1.18)",
      "binarySha256": "71b3d50189aae57b2d01a5f16c46c1c48d006bf27403b7033478b9a6f013d414"
    }
  },
  "fixture": {
    "clusterBytes": 65536,
    "virtualBytes": 262144,
    "baselineSha256": "b3ce90353d1d8be0f1ab9035c98dc91251f021e40f80cc3411bfdae27c2cc2b8",
    "baselineClusterBytes": [
      17,
      0,
      51,
      68
    ],
    "repetitions": 3,
    "cases": [
      "intact",
      "data-byte-flip",
      "data-replaced",
      "data-truncated",
      "data-missing",
      "metadata-only-moved",
      "pair-moved",
      "pair-moved-cwd",
      "pair-moved-explicit",
      "runtime-override"
    ],
    "rawModes": [
      false,
      true
    ]
  },
  "rowCount": 60,
  "rawSha256": "89cc84284ede2435711e1fda587628c913114ac6cb8b0ba38d5d1c1096cebf46",
  "harnessSha256": "d309aa627953bdab049f130f1806d9c41ee95b6b1785629a5aefaa62c6dd8024",
  "rows": [
    {
      "case": "intact",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "data-byte-flip",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 1,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "data-replaced",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 196608,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "data-truncated",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 131072,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "data-missing",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "metadata-only-moved",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved-cwd",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved-explicit",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "runtime-override",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 196608,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "intact",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "data-byte-flip",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 1,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "data-replaced",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 196608,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "data-truncated",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 131072,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "data-missing",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "metadata-only-moved",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved-cwd",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved-explicit",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "runtime-override",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 1,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 196608,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "intact",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "data-byte-flip",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 1,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "data-replaced",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 196608,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "data-truncated",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 131072,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "data-missing",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "metadata-only-moved",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved-cwd",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved-explicit",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "runtime-override",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 196608,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "intact",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "data-byte-flip",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 1,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "data-replaced",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 196608,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "data-truncated",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 131072,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "data-missing",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "metadata-only-moved",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved-cwd",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved-explicit",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "runtime-override",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 2,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 196608,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "intact",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "data-byte-flip",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 1,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "data-replaced",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 196608,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "data-truncated",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 131072,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "data-missing",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "metadata-only-moved",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved-cwd",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved-explicit",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "runtime-override",
      "rawMode": false,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 196608,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 65536
    },
    {
      "case": "intact",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 0,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 0,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "data-byte-flip",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 1,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "data-replaced",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 196608,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "data-truncated",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 0,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 1,
      "exportExit": 0,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": 131072,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "data-missing",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "metadata-only-moved",
      "rawMode": true,
      "repetition": 3,
      "checkExit": 1,
      "infoExit": 0,
      "compareExit": 2,
      "exportExit": 1,
      "metadataUnchanged": true,
      "changedGuestBytes": null,
      "initialDirectRawChangedBytes": 0
    },
    {
      "case": "pair-moved",
      "rawMode": true,
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